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Publications IPH Magazine IPH Magazine Nº 11 The modern architecture focused on health and the city

The modern architecture focused on health and the city Ana Albano Amora

Foreword

To talk about the modern architecture focused on health and the city we must first analyze the elements in this title in order to understand how they relate. The discussion concerning a sane city, clean and harmless to the common health is not new; it is a line of thinking that has been in the base of the modern notions regarding the city and the hospital architecture. The fight for salubrious cities takes us back, without anachronisms, to the 18th century Europe and to the origins of modern medicine. It is in this period of history that we find the beginnings of the modernization of the field.

Michel Foucault (1979), a reference in health-related studies, used to believe that modern medicine was a social practice supported by the technology of the social institution and, when capitalism developed - between the 18th and 19th centuries, it transformed the body into a force of production and work. During this period, under the mercantilism system, the European nations were concerned with the health of their populations, since it was necessary to control money and asset flows, as well as the productive activities of the population, thus began the sanitary control. Earlier examples of such activities were put into practice since the 17th century in France and England with birth and death rates and the record of population growth; and in Germany by establishing a medical practice focused on improving people's health and a medical police force.

Adding to this idea, it is worth mentioning Richard Sennet's (2005) quotation concerning Doctor William Harvey's discovery in De motu cordis (1628) about blood circulation, which changed completely the way the human body was understood and, therefore, gave space to a new model of mobility that coincided with the beginning of capitalism. Above all, this model had an influence on the expansion of the urban system, allowing the spreading of roads in the city, improving its inhabitants' circulation and the ventilation in the city.

Thereby, putting the 18th century into context and resuming Michel Foucault (1979), the author comments on the foundations to the beginning of the western social medicine, giving emphasis to: a medicine of the state, developed in Germany in the beginning of the 18th century; a social medicine, that began in France in the end of the 18th century and was based on urbanization; a new way of social medicine in England that was concerned about poverty.

Although the three aforementioned experiences have influenced our own social medicine, in the present article we will think the relationship with the city, but, firstly, we will focus on France and the medicine related to the urban area, to later in the text shed some light on the theme in Brazil, using Rio de Janeiro as an example, and concluding with some considerations about the health cultural patrimony as places that carry the city memories.

France and urban medicine

The concern with health and the urban system in France began with the consolidation of the states and the growth of the cities, which brought the need of structuring them as politically homogeneous unities. According to Michel Foucault (1979) (aforementioned work), the French cities used to be a mass of heterogeneous territories, instead of one unified power, the power was distributed over numerous manors[1]. As a consequence, in the second half of the 18th century, economic and political reasons trigger the problem of unifying urban power, due to the so called urban danger and the frequent rebellions in the city area[2]. That was when a better control of the social body became necessary. In order to do so, the quarantine was reviewed and adapted to serve as a tool of population control and the newborn urban medicine became an improvement of this political and medical scheme. Such mechanism comprehended a thorough study of the urban space with a detailed analysis of the cities and a permanent military record, aiming public hygiene, such as analyzing places in the urban space that could gather anything capable of causing diseases.

This practice had an effect on the ways of placing urban facilities and on how to control and organize the air and water circulation, leading to what this author will define as sequence of localization, which means, the systematic observation of the consequences of certain localizations when compared to others such as, water sources and sewage. This implied in actions like transferring cemeteries to outside the city, those were considered to be the cause of diseases, and the ones presented in Paris' first hydrographic plan of 1742.

The importance of this line of reasoning over the actions that will be put into practice later was allowing the contact between medicine and all other sciences. This medicine as a science that dealt with urban matters gave birth to the notion of milieu, with the resulting development of the notion of salubrious, which implied in the conception of public hygiene. Therefore, being salubrious would be the material and social base capable of assuring the best health possible to urban inhabitants and, as a consequence, assuring a healthier and more willing to produce population.

There are two exemplary cases that illustrate this attitude concerning the city's space. The first one is the criticism that the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris received after the fire of 1772, which became a report about French hospitals at the time and projects and solutions to the new hospital that was supposed to be built to replace it. The second one was the discussion about placing the Holy Innocents' Cemetery in the center of the French city, the cemetery held the cadavers of the poorest people in the city who did not have means to pay for a grave. The latter caused panic and fear on Paris' inhabitants, especially the ones living nearby the cemetery, due to possible emanations from the decaying corpses that were believed to infect the population (Pictures 1 and 2)[3].

The Hôtel-Dieu case caused a series of reflections referring to hospitals' hygiene conditions and their consequent spaces. Jacques Tenon[4], physician and a member of the Paris Academy of Science who was in charge of the commission responsible for advising the rebuilding of the hospital, the oldest one in the city, after the fire that destroyed it, carried out an exhaustive examination about hospitals in France and England. He also wrote reports that gave the principles that were the base of hospital architecture, which were followed by architects up to the 1920s. Jaime Benchimol (1990, page 192) teaches us that such issues have been determinant to "(...) transforming massive hospitals such as the Hôtel-Dieu, dangerously placed amidst urban agglomeration, into smaller unities distant from the city (...)" and to choosing a structure with pavilions. Such type of building, with isolated edifications occupied by differentiated functions - from infirmary to specific diseases to support services, would offer ways and protected paths to connect them, thus setting apart the sick and their sicknesses and, above all, allowing a "great volume of air, continuously renewed by the wind." The vicious air was one of the main recurring issues present on discussions and polemics regarding the salubrious quality of the hospital building and its spaces, such debate went beyond the miasmatic theory and joined the 19th century's scientific developments[5]. The main concern was to assure the hospital would be a non-contagious space, a healing machine whose construction would be mainly based on air circulation and the dispersion of any possibility of contact among the sick and their sicknesses (BENCHIMOL, 1990).

Picture 1
Hôtel-Dieu, painting from the 18th century.
Source: Nikolaus Pevsner.

Picture 2
The Holy Innocents' Cemetery.
Available at: http://www.landrucimetieres.fr/spip/spip.php?article275

Besides the proposals presented by physicians and designed by architects to serve the new Hôtel-Dieu building, we find as an organized model of this modernization of the hospital architecture the building designed by Nicolas-Louis Durand[6] (1760-1835) and published in 1802 in his book Précis des Leçons D'Architecture, which was possibly one of the outcomes from the discussions on how the hygienic hospital should be like and  a development of the modernization of architecture in France, in which designing buildings to serve new public functions and the organization of types to be reproduced were vital[7]. The proposal idealized by Durand suggested 6 pavilions on each side of a central path and a long yard, all brought together by colonnades. Afterwards, the model was greatly spread and reinterpreted to serve hospital buildings worldwide; introducing the idea of connected pavilions (Picture 3).  This organization made it feasible to create a hospital built towards its inner space in which, even inside a city, would be surrounded by yards and gardens, allowing ongoing ventilation and the scattering of contaminated air.

Picture 3
Model of a Hospital with Connected Pavilions

Model of a hospital
Source: DURAND, Jean-Nicolas-Louis. Précis  des Leçons D'Architecture (1802) 

Laribossiere Hospital
 Source: PEVSNER, 1997

New Hôtel-Dieu, Paris (built around 1877)
Source: Available at http://passeiosemparis.blogspot.com.br/2011_04_01_archive.html

We consider that the direction this matter took, especially regarding the hospital localization in the city, was an indication, from the hygienic point of view, that the required environmental conditions were to be respected. This concern receives emphasis right in the beginning of urbanism in the 19th century, in the so called urban utopias[8], in which texts we notice the worry of establishing these buildings and maintaining the salubrious quality of the city spaces.

Exemplifying this argument, there is the work of Etienne Cabet, Voyage en Icarie (1840), in which we can find principles of reasoning, hygiene and classification with hygienic proposal. In Icara, capital of Icária, there would not be either cemeteries, or unhealthy factories and hospitals. Benjamin W. Richarson, on its 1876 work, "Hygeia: A City of Health" sums up his goals, among them, to have in this hypothetic city "the lowest death rate possible", with wide spaces surrounded by emptiness and plants enabling ventilation and the comfort of its inhabitants (Choay, 2005, p. 8).

Afterwards, in the 20th century, we will read about the same concern in the modern urbanistic proposals indicating spaces outside the densest areas of the city or in high places. It is what Tony Garnier (1904) presents in its project for an industrial city in which the hospital building is higher than the other urban facilities.

Thereby, we can assume that the location and the interaction between the building and the landscape were key factors for the project of a hospital, as mentioned in theses texts and projects from the 19th and first half of the 20th century. Such aspects would be of great help in treating and healing patients, for they would be in an environment suitable to the convalescence period, as well as to protect the healthy population who would be safe from possible contaminations.

A text to use as reference to this approach is, without a doubt, the one written by Casimir Tollet, who proposed in 1872 France a system - the Tollet system, in which hospital buildings should be located far from urban gatherings and in sunny areas. The surface of the area chosen for the implementation should also allow a growing number of shared dormitories; the buildings should be spread all over the area respecting the parallelism among them. This conglomeration would allow only two-storey buildings in which the principle of isolation was mandatory, with each sickness and sick person isolated inside the pavilion (TOLLET, 1894). This system, also known as pavilion model (Picture 4), was widely spread and survived Louis Pasteur's discoveries and the germ theory of diseases.

Picture 4: Model of hospitals with pavilions
Source: BENCHIMOL (1990).

City and health in Brazil


In Brazil, according to Maurício de Almeida Abreu (2001), the fight for salubrious urban spaces was present in the approach concerning the cities between 1870 and 1930, moreover, I dare to say, it was strengthened in public policies and over the area of the cities throughout Getúlio Vargas' first time in the presidency (1930-1945) (AMORA, 2006).  According to Abreu: "Hygienic considerations guided how we evaluated, criticized and thought about the urban centers from earlier times. The design of new cities and new outskirts of former ones were guided by similar concerns"[9].

At first the hygienic viewpoint led this changing spirit, above all in the second half of the 19th century. This conception was first seen in the Greek physician Hippocrates' work[10], On airs, waters and places, which, in the 17th century, was the base for the English physician Thomas Syndenham's line of thinking that it would exist a close connection between pathologies and environmental conditions and, therefore, the interventions on the old urban structures prioritized, among other aspects, the flow of winds and the usage of water, which was the beginning of the urban sanitation networks (URTEAGA, 1980 and AMORA, 2012). According to Abreu, (aforementioned work) there was a common opinion that epidemic outbreaks in a city could be suppressed with prophylactic actions concerning the city's geography and its urban elements such as:

to bury mangroves and swamps; to knock down hills that stopped the wind from blowing; to widen the streets, demanding that the new ones follow the new standards; to keep constructions apart; to demand that every room in a house/building have window facing outside; to build basements to protect the house from humidity; to stop collective housing from spreading throughout the city; to forbid landfills between walls; to properly locate slaughterhouses and factories that handle organic matter (soap and candles, leather and so on); to dispose garbage and filthiness appropriately.

Similar actions, however, had already been proposed by the end of the 18th century and were retrieved in the beginning of the 19th. Therefore, we can conclude that it was during the 18th century, in the scope of the Portuguese ultramarine territorial policies, that began this concern with health in Rio de Janeiro and as a consequence, these actions spread to the rest of the colony.

Maria Rachel Fróes Fonseca (2008)[11], when discussing the matter of health in the colonial capital in this period, tells us that from then on the actions concerning hygiene and health defense were intensified, which were put into effect by the end of the century without constituting official policies. Among the regulatory actions undertaken there were: cleaning backyards and streets, disposing the garbage and excrements; isolating contagious sick people and establishing military hospitals and philanthropic health institutions. The city of Rio de Janeiro's low location near the sea, its bay and hills were believed to cause humidity, lack of proper wind circulation and of salubrious quality that could trigger the outbreak of diseases. The buildings established in inappropriate sites, not sufficient height, reduced dimensions and not enough air circulation, would aggravate this morbid scenario of the city over its inhabitants. The actions proposed would imply in engagements over the physical space of the city such as, altering its typography, knocking down buildings and Castelo e Santo Antônio hills (Picture 5), and building houses under the supervision of experts. At any rate, from this moment on, it was already clear in Brazil that acting over the milieu, cleaning the streets, drying swamps and relocate cemeteries were fundamental.

Picture 5
City of Rio de Janeiro. Overview of 1860 
with Castelo and Santo Antônio hills on the right
Lithography by Emil Bauch
Available at: http://vitruvius.es/revistas/read/arquitextos/08.096/143

This Hippocratic paradigm remained for a long time in effect and the cities were seen as locations likely to spread sicknesses, since they did not allow the balance of different fluids, possible carriers of infection (GUIMARÃES, 2001). After the 1880s, Louis Pasteur's discoveries led to the bacteriology revolution and brought significant consequences to this line of thinking, challenging the idea that miasmas, pestilence emanations, were responsible for causing diseases. Far from that, microscope organisms began to hold the responsibility for disseminating illnesses, transmitted to human beings by the so called carriers, among which, insects.

In the urbanism scope, the new paradigm implied changing how we used to intervene in the cities and the conception of hygiene was replaced by sanitation, which meant a technical viewpoint based on science, according to which the city is a great gear whose pieces must be adjusted. Supported by the positivism, engineers such as Francisco Saturnino de Brito and Theodoro Sampaio relied on the triple conception of sanitation-circulation-aesthetic to translate their scientific ideals concerning urban interventions with an agenda of improvements, in which the key points were: sanitation, especially understood as urban drainage; and infrastructure networks, circulation, streetlights, water supply, sewage (ABREU, 2001 e LEME, 1999).

During this time, there were no relevant changes regarding the hospital structure and the buildings proposed kept on following the pavilion model until the first half of the 20th century, especially for the hospitals where certain diseases were treated with isolation such as, leprosy, tuberculosis and mental illnesses. Nonetheless, at the same time, the debate concerning the efficiency of pavilions is provoked, as well as the discussion surrounding the technical possibilities for vertical buildings with blocks (Picture 6).

Picture 6
The Block Structure
Source: Mauro Camargo (1930)



The matter of the location and quality of the building are questionable arguments. The discussion about the location took into consideration the growing value of urban land for both models. The germ theory of diseases made it feasible to concentrate different illnesses in one same place; the vertical building would be the technical solution to make the management works (CARDOSO, 1927). The idea of having the hospital building back to the city center is not well received by those who believed the urban landscape with its air and sound pollution would be a hazard to the healing process, in which scenario the hospital environment would be infected not by microbes, but by pollutants from urban activities (CAMARGO, 1930).

The aesthetic and the landscape were considered to help the healing process. In an article called "O hospital moderno" (The modern hospital), published in Ilustração Brasileira magazine in July 1909, the new hospitals are described as inspired by the Tollet standards, with "humble ground pavilions, cheerful and light, alongside with flower beds and among trees of a park" and there is the advice to hang works of art in the buildings[12]. These characteristics regarding the conditions of the location are also proposed in a book from 1918 about hospital architecture well known among Brazilian doctors, architects and engineers. The author, North-American architect Edward Stevens, affirms that when establishing a hospital one should consider the place - its location and the physical features of the environment in which such hospital is to be built - as a factor that could help the patients' healing process, (STEVENS, 1918). Stevens was not just talking about the orientation of the land concerning sunlight and ventilation, he also meant the location regarding the presence of industries and other pollutant elements, accessibility and the importance of caring for the landscape surrounding the buildings, allowing places for contemplation and rest, which also have some role in helping treating sick people.

Another argument related to the establishment of hospitals in the city is the decree 6.000 from the Código de Obras e Legislação Complementar (a Brazilian legislation that used to regulate constructions) published in 1937 by the Distrito Federal[13]  to regulate the constructions in the city of Rio de Janeiro. This was a tool that focused on the city and listed elements to discuss the proposals for health facilities in Brazil, since the country's capital used to be a reference to the other Brazilian cities. This decree classified and separated the hospitals into three categories: general hospitals; asylums, which included hospitals for the alienated, chronic patients, affected by tuberculosis and mentally ill; and the free facilities, maybe a reference to the clinics and first aid posts. The document brought a reflection regarding the localization of these constructions in the city forbidding building new hospitals or health facilities in areas mostly occupied by factories, harbors and commerce, but allowing the construction in some residential, rural and agricultural areas (AMORA, COSTA, FILGUEIRAS and MAGALHÃES, 2014).

In the following years, the construction of general hospitals in blocks will demonstrate concern with the building surroundings by establishing designed gardens as a way to counteract its presence in a more urbanized area or to stand out and be protected from a certain urban complex. The partnership between architects from Rio de Janeiro and the landscape designer Roberto Burle Marx assured the aesthetic and functional quality of the hospital gardens. Differing from a worldwide tendency of thinking the garden from its function, here the garden was conceived as part of the architecture, which had both rational and organic proposals. To complete the unit, a sculpture and a panel would be placed to satisfy the concept of an integrated project, the junction of all arts. To illustrate the idea, we must mention the Hospital da Lagoa, designed in partnership with Oscar Niemeyer (1951-1959), and the Instituto de Puericultura, with Jorge Machado Moreira (1949-1953); they are both exemplary modern patrimonies of hospitals that are integrated with gardens (Picture 7). At the Instituto de Puericultura we will find a tile panel made by the landscape designer, who later designed the panel for the entrance hall and the vertical garden for the Hospital Souza Aguiar in partnership with architect Ary Garcia Roza. Such initiatives corroborate the argument that the aesthetic and local aspects were considered important elements for treating and healing patients when developing the project of a modern health facility.

Picture 7
Modern Hospitals and Gardens

Hospital da Lagoa
Oscar Niemeyer's project, 
Landscape by Roberto Burle Marx
Source: Revista Módulo, v. III, n. 14, 1959

Hospital de Puericultura
Jorge Machado Moreira's project, 
Landscape by Roberto Burle Marx
Source: CZAJKOWSKI, Jorge (Org.). Jorge Machado Moreira. Rio de Janeiro: SMU; Centro de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, 1999.

Final considerations

Historically there has been a relationship between the proposal of a modern architecture focused on health and the discussion regarding the city. This reasoning was based on three fields: health, urbanism and architecture; and it aimed towards finding solutions for the complex urban growth and the problems within the health system. In Brazil, this discussion lays its foundation in a process that has the State, after the 1930's revolution, as the prosecutor of the modernization, having as its goal to build the nation and the spirit of nationality, which leads to growing investments in public constructions and in qualified people to design them (AMORA, 2006).

Meanwhile, the architecture produced in Europe and The United States had an influence on the construction of peripheral models that were adapted to the technical needs and conditions, local material and aesthetic, that gained meaning and can be considered as "places of memory" (NORA, 1993), as the concrete memories serving both as documents and as monuments to understand the space within the medical and architectonic reasoning (LE GOFF, 1996; AMORA, 2010).

We believe that modern health facilities can be understood as the structure of a symbolic armor and that they can spread ideas from the formal and functional elements of architecture, which has the role of communicating to the masses, like a work of art whose perception happens collectively in the daily routine of the city (BENJAMIN, 1985). Many of these health buildings were designed to have what Alois Riegl (1987) called the intentional value of remembrance, since, throughout history, the fields of knowledge have been represented by the creation of symbolic equipments, which embraced the architecture and the most spectacular buildings to distinguish a certain social group.

Illustrating these functional and symbolic characteristics, we have the rich literature concerning hospital architecture produced during the first half of the 20th century in which it was discussed the location and the establishment of these buildings in the city. The modern hospital architecture in Rio de Janeiro in the 1950s embraces the relationship between building and garden to create a counterpoint to the relationship between the hospital and the city, giving emphasis to the construction at the same time it offers favorable environmental conditions so it can fulfill its purpose of treating and healing.

We have noticed, however, that preserving the hospital building from the urban routine was the concern of a most contemporary project of Jarbas Karman, an architect from Minas Gerais graduated by the Polytechnic School of São Paulo, for the Hospital Geral da Guarnição do Galeão, designed in 1967 and finished in 1976. This project is kind to its user, but, above all, it shows the knowledge of the importance of having open air spaces with gardens (Picture 8)[14]. Probably, he did not acquire such knowledge just from studying the bibliography, it came from the valuable exchange he promoted among architects dedicated to health projects, like when he organized the 1st Course of Hospital Planning at IAB in São Paulo in 1953. One of the attendees was the architect Jorge Machado Moreira, author at the Instituto de Puericultura at UFRJ in Ilha do Fundão and one of the members of the team of architects led by Lucio Costa responsible for the MESP building, the current Palácio Capanema; the group paid special attention to the garden as a component part of the project in modern building.

Finally, we believe that it is our job as researchers to unveil the hidden meanings behind these projects to enlighten the users of such buildings and the inhabitants of the city, enabling them to understand the relationship between the architecture focused on health and the historic construction of the cities, allowing common people to comprehend the temporal dimension of the urban space.

Picture 8
Hospital Geral da Guarnição do Galeão. View of patios with gardens
Source: IPH's collection

Notes

[1] Such powers were in the hands of laymen, the Church, religious communities, autonomous corporations with their own jurisdiction and representatives of the state power.

[2] Foucault (1979) discusses the urbanization process with the consequent displacement of the rural population and its contradictions, with the groups that held money and power, from the countryside to the cities.

[3] According to Foucault (1979), when the transference of the Holy Innocents' Cemetery to the outskirts of Paris is considered in the 18th century, Antoine François de Fourcroy (1755-1809), great chemistry of the time, was asked to give a concurring opinion about what was to be done regarding the influence of this facility to the city.

[4] The reports were published by Tenon in the book called "Mémoire sur lês Hôpitaus de Paris", in 1788.

[5] Nikolaus Pevsner, in History of building types, brings a list of authors who wrote about the importance of ventilation in hospitals, among them: Henri Louis Duhamel de Moreau - Différents moyens pour renouveler l'air des infermeries (1748), Stephen Hales - Description of ventilators (1743) and Claude Leopold, de Genneté - Nouvelle construction de cheminées (1759) (PEVSNER, 1997 [1970]). In the 19th, Casimir Tollet's contribution was groundbreaking. In 1878, the "Tollet rooms", with vaults that enable the circulation of vicious air coming from the hospital nurse's wards; they won first prize in the Paris Exposition Universelle (CABANAS; IBANEZ, 2006, apud TOLEDO, 2008).

[6] Durand, disciple of Etienne-Louis Boullé, taught at the Polytechnique and gave a priceless contribution to the theory of architecture by stating that the social use should be the foremost important goal of architecture, for the first time He suggested a standard architectonic project (BIERMANN et alli, 2003), submitting the artistic point of view to functionality.

[7] This study concerning the modernization of architecture for health is part of the post-doctoral program that I undertook at Casa de Oswaldo Cruz, under Jaime Benchimol's supervision.

[8] Françoise Choay (2005) called pre-urbanism the ideas presented by intellectuals, physicians and polemists from the 19th century of how the new cities should be like.

[9] The text was published and can be found on the Observatório Geográfico de América Latina's website (http://observatoriogeograficoamericalatina.org.mx/). It is part of the memories from the meetings and there is no page numeration.

[10] Hippocrates was a Greek physician, referred to as "the father of western medicine". He lived between 460 and 370 BC. His work and significant discoveries guided the medical thinking until Pasteur.

[11] The author wants to highlight the existence of some documentation in which it is possible to notice the intention of taking better care of the space of the city and its salubrious quality. The first of them is the inquiry undertaken by Rio de Janeiro's Senate in 1798, in which seven questions were proposed; four of them regarding health and salubrious matters. The other one was the document published in 1813 with the answers to the aforementioned questions.

[12] Ilustração Brasileira magazine, year 1, number 3, July 1908, page 54.

[13] This is a reference to the city of Rio de Janeiro, which was the capital of Brazil from 1891 - the year Brazil became a republic, to 1960, when the national capital was transferred to Brasilia, the planned city.

[14] It is worth mentioning that this tendency is coming back as well as the hospital building with connected pavilions. We learned of such tendency with the presentation of new projects for hospitals during the last ABDEH's congress in 2014. The high-quality projects presented by the Argentinean architect Mario Corea showed this reasoning.

Bibliography

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